BIBLIOGRAPHY
7.
Indian Architecture –
Hindu,Buddhist,Jain
Wednesday, 24 July 2013
INTRODUCTION
The rule of the Cholas forms an important part in
the history of South India. Chola rule saw remarkable progress in almost all
spheres of life such as polity, culture and economy. They primarily ruled in
the south of India from the 9th to 13th Century. The Indian Chola Empire
conquered not just the south of India but also extended their empire over the
sea and ruled parts of the Maldives and Sri Lanka. The Chola dynasty is an
important landmark in the history of India.
Chola Empire
Under Rajendra Chola
Architecture and art was at its peak during the
reign of the Cholas. They built small new stone temples dedicated to Shiva and
covered the brick built shrines of their predecessors with stone. Pallavan
architecture inspired the Cholas.The local administration system of the Cholas
was amazing and reminds us of the modern day Pahchayati raj.
TIMEPERIOD/TIMELINE
The Chola Dynasty can be divided into three periods.
The EARLY CHOLAS
Their early capitals were Urayur and Kaveripattinam.The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period. They are also mentioned in the inscriptions Pillars of Ashoka.
The MEDIVIAL CHOLAS
The rise of the Cholas under Vijayalayas leadership.
The Medieval Cholas under Rajaraja and his successors developed a highly organised administrative structure with central control and autonomous village assemblies. The system of government was a hereditary monarchy and the coronation of the king was an impressive ceremony. The royal household comprised of numerous servants of varied descriptions. Land revenue was the mainstay of public finance and great care was undertaken to recording land rights and revenue dues.
This period of the Chola rule saw the maturity of the Tamil Temple architecture. Rajaraja built the great Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. His son Rajendra imitated this effort by building the temple at his new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
This age also saw the Hindu religious revival in both Saiva and Vaishnava traditions. The Saiva and Vishnava canons were collected and categorised during this period. However the later half of this period saw the state sponsored persecution of those of the Vaishnava persuation. Their spiritual leader Ramanuja was persecuted and driven out of the Chola country.
The LATER CHOLAS
This period started from the third quarter of the 11th century.
TRADE AND MILITARY EXPANSION
REVENUE
The land revenue department was well organized. All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of revenue. The residential portion of the village was called Ur Nattam. These and other lands such as the lands belonging to temples were exempted from tax. The main items of government expenditure were the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and canals.
Coins
TRADE
Commerce flourished under the Cholas. Trade was carried on with West Asia and China and South-east Asia. Foreign trade provided an additional incentive to an already developing local market.
Trade routes and territories of the Cholas
MILITARY EXPANSION
The Cholas had ruled as chieftains in Tamilnadu since the first century A.D.towards the middle of the 9th century, Vijayalaya (846-871) conquered Tanjore and declared himself the ruler of an independent state. Even more important was Parantaka I (907-955) who conquered the land of the Pandyas but suffered defeat at the hands of a Rashtrakuta King.Chola power became solidly established in the reign of Rajaraja I (985-1014) and his son and successor Rajindra I (1014-1044).
The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy. About seventy regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions. The royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within this there was a personal troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar.
Rajaraja‘s policy of annexation was influenced by the consideration of trade. He began by attacking the alliance between Kerala, Ceylon and the Pandayas in order to break their monopoly of western trade. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy. The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its climax under the Cholas. They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts.
The Chola Kingdom had exhausted its resources and was on the decline in the 13th century when it succumbed to an attack by the Hoysalas from the west and the Pandyas from the south. The new kingdoms were to last till the Turkish sultans overthrew the existing dynasties in the Deccan in the 14th century.
ADMINISTRATION OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE
GOVERNMENT
The Chola kings ruled their kingdom with the help of a council of ministers and of officers who were in charge of various branches of administration. Local self-government was a remarkable feature of Chola administration. The village was the basic unit of administration. Chola officials participated more as advisors and observers. The villages had a village assembly or council known as the Ur or Sabha. Villagers who owned land or belonged to the upper castes were chosen by lot to the councils.
The council was often divided into a number of small committees and each committee would look after an aspect of the village administration. The revenue of the Chola kingdom came from two sources-taxes on land and taxes on trade. Often a part of revenue was assigned to a temple.
ADMINISTRATION
The Cholas had an excellent system of administration. The emperor or king was at the top of the administration. The extent and resources of the Chola Empire increased the power and prestige of monarchy. The big capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts and extensive grants to the temples reveal the authority of the king. They undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration.
The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu there were a number of autonomous villages. The royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams. The town was known as nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called nagarattar.
Councils usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed resolutions. The number of committees and ward members varied from village to village.
SOCIETY,CULTURE,RELIGION AND EDUCATION
SOCIETY,RELIGION
AND CULTURE
There were many developments in the culture and
society during the Chola Empire. The main center for cultural and social
gatherings was the temple. The temple was an institution in itself. The temple
courtyard functioned as a school where students were taught the ancient Vedas
and Holy Scriptures. The temples were built in the form of citadels where
people could feel safe during an attack or aggression.
Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola
period. However, there was cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in
social and religious life.The society was divided into Brahmins and non-Brahmins,
but there is little mention of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas but the Shudras are
prominent.
A number of popular religious movements flourished
in the Tamil area. They questioned the authority of the Vedas and the theory of
re-birth. Shiva was worshipped as a symbol of fertility.
In the 11th century, Ramanuja disagreed with
Shankara’s theory that knowledge was the primary means of salvation. He
insisted on pure devotion, giving oneself up entirely to God. He also pleaded
for the throwing open of temples to Shudras but without much success.
Life revolved around the temple. As Brahmanism came
into contact with firmly entrenched beliefs in the power of fertility, the
Bhakti cult emerged.
Both Saivism
and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola period. A number of
temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens. Both
agriculture and industry flourished. Reclamation of forest lands and the
construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to agricultural
prosperity. The weaving industry, particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi
flourished. The metal works developed owing to great demand of images for
temples and utensils. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in plenty at
various denominations.
Chola sculptures
EDUCATION
Education was also given importance. Besides the
temples as educational centres, several
educational institutions also flourished. Apart from the Vedas and Epics,
subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions.
Language developed immensely and many languages like Tamil, Kannada and Telugu
were developed from Sanskrit.
The development of Tamil literature reached its
peak during the Chola period. The Ramayana composed by Kamban and the
Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the two master-pieces of
this age.
Chola Temples were the
centre of daily life
PEOPLE INVOLVED - EARLY CHOLAS
• Karikala Chola
They
attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and
the construction of the flood banks,
Grand Anicut, of the Kaveri River with the aid of his feudatories.
The Grand Anicut, also known as the Kallanai , is an ancient
dam built on the Kaveri River in the state of Tamil Nadu in southern India. It
is located about 20 km from Tiruchirapalli. It was built by the Chola king
Karikala Chola around the 2nd Century AD and is considered one of the oldest
water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in
use. It still stands as a symbol of Dravidian Engineering
Grand Anicut
The purpose of the Kallanai was to divert the waters of the
Kaveri across the fertile delta region for irrigation via canals. The dam
splits the river Kaveri into 4 streams. It is constructed from unhewn stone
spanning the Kaveri and is 329 m (1,079 ft) long, 20 m (66 ft) wide and 5.4 m
(18 ft) high. The dam is still in excellent repair, and supplied a model to
later engineers. By the early 20th century, the irrigated area had been
increased to about one million acres.
• Kocengannan
Kocengannan is
potrayed as a Shiva devotee who built many temples dedicated to Shiva along the
banks of the River Kaveri
Thiruvanaikaval is a famous Shiva temple in Tiruchirapalli
built by Kocengannan.It is one of the five main Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu and
had insciptions about the Cholas. Each of the five temples represent the five
elements of nature – earth,water,fire,sky
and air, with Thiruvanaikaval representing water.
There are 5 enclosures inside the temple. The entrance has a
huge and magnificent seven tiered Raja Gopuran in the entrance.
Thiruvanaikaval
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jambukeswarar_Temple,_Thiruvanaikaval)
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